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• 1 linguistics

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• People have long used donkeys as pack animals.The speaker pronounces the underlined word in which of the following ways?a. [donkɘz] b. [daŋkeys] c. [dawŋkys] d. [daŋkiz] 

  d. [daŋkiz] 

• What is a phoneme?

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

  • Phonemes=sounds that are perceived as meaningfully different in a language (‘distinctive’). 
    
  • Each sound has its own phonetic symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
    
  • —Phonetic symbols – not the same as spelling! 1 sound = 1 symbol. 
    

• How many distinct sounds are in these words?bebeatkneecoughedsubstitution 

  
  
  
  
  

  • be (2)
    
  • beat (3)
    
  • knee (2)
    
  • coughed (4)
    
  • —substitution (11) 
    

• How many distinctive consonants in American English?

  
  
  
  
  There are 24 distinctive consonants in American English, each one represented by a phonetic symbol. 

• Manner of ArticulationHow is the air obstructed? There are three main ways. What are they? 

  
  
  
  
  

  1. Stops: p, b, t, d, k, g
     
  2. Fricatives: f, v, th, s, z, sh —
     
  3. Affricates: ch, j 
     

• 4 ways we describe vowels in American English:

  
  
  
  
  

  1. How high is my tongue? (high, mid, low)
     
  2. How far forward is my tongue? (front, mid, back)
     
  3. Are the sounds tense or lax?
     
  4. Are my lips rounded or unrounded? 
     

• All the berries were picked.Which of the following best characterizes the speaker’s pronunciation of the very last sound in the word “picked”?a. [ed] b. [t] c. [d] d. [ɾ] 

  
  
  
  
  b. [t]

• K ACHRU’S “CIRCLES” of “World Englishes”

  
  
  
  
  Many varieties of English are found across the globe. Kachru (1992) classified these varieties as those used in the ‘inner circle’, the ‘outer circle’, and the ‘expanding circle’. 

• "The wind blew down many tree branches”The speaker pronounced the underlined word in which of the following ways?1. [brančez] 2. [brɛnčɛz] 3. [brayncɛz] 4. [brænčəz] 

  4. [brænčəz]

• the rule for when a vowel is nasalized in English

  
  
  
  
  

  • Vowels in English become nasalized before nasal consonants.
    
  • —The sound environments ‘condition’ the phonemes so that each allophone is pronounced more easily within its environment